A Hardening Hierarchy

The Japanese in the Global Formation of Racial Ideologies, 1735-1854

The evolving racial perceptions of the Japanese between 1735 and 1854 were shaped by both Western observers and emerging Japanese voices. Framed by Linnaeuss Systema Naturae and the forced opening of Japans ports, this long century coincided with the global ascent of racial thought amid growing technological, commercial, and geopolitical disparities. While Western nations rapidly industrialized, expanded their empires, and formulated racial ideologies to justify their dominance, Japan remained a populous and militarily formidable nation one poorly understood by Western cultures enthralled by the stirrings of scientific racism. This disconnect generated a unique tension in global racial discourse.

In this definitive work, Rotem Kowner explores three central themes: the emergence of modern racial theory defined by belief in immutable racial hierarchies a